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Earthquakes: Definition, Types and Distribution

An earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the earth, carved by the sudden movement of a part of the earth's crust. Types of Earthquakes Depending on the factors conditioning them earthquakes can be divided into three main groups: Volcanic Earthquakes: These earthquakes are connected with the processes of volcanism and are thus developed only in the regions of contemporary volcanic activity. Denudation Earthquakes: or earthquakes due to collapse are the result from the collapse of the considerable masses of rocks, mainly in the mountain regions, the sinking of under-ground cavities. For example Karst Caves and large landslides. Tectonic Earthquakes: Earthquakes belonging to this group are characterized by maximum force and account for 95% of all earthquakes that are registered. These earthquakes are result of the process of bending (folding) and breaking (Faulting) of crustal mountains concentrated on or near active lithospheric plate boundaries. Types of Earthquakes depending
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Egypt

Occupying the northeast corner of Africa, Egypt is divided by the highly fertile Nile Valley. Its essentially pro-Western, military-backed regime is being challenged by Islamic fundamentalists.
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The Aral Sea

East of the Caspian Sea, astride the former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, lies an immense saline lake—the Aral Sea. Fed by meltwaters of high glaciers and snowfields in the lofty Hindu Kush, Pamir, and Tien Shan Ranges, the lake endured through thousands of years as an oasis for terrestrial and aquatic wildlife deep in the heart of the central Asian desert. But in the last 50 years, the Aral Sea, once larger than Lake Huron, has shrunk to a shadow of its former extent. The volume of its waters has decreased by more than two-thirds, and its salinity has increased from 1 percent to over 3 percent, making it more salty than sea water. Twenty of the 24 fish species native to the lake have disappeared. Its catch of commercial fish, which once supplied 10 percent of the total for the Soviet Union, has dwindled to zero. The deltas of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, which enter the south and east sides of the lake, were islands of great ecological diversity, teeming with f
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Pollution of Surface Water

Water pollutants include various types of common ions and salts, as well as heavy metals, organic compounds, and acids. Excessive plant nutrients in runoff feeding lakes can lead to eutrophication. Streams, lakes, bogs, and marshes provide specialized habitats for plants and animals. These habitats are particularly sensitive to changes in the water balance and in water chemistry. Our industrial society not only makes radical changes to the flow of water by constructing dams, irrigation systems, and canals, but it also pollutes and contaminates our surface waters with a large variety of wastes. There are many different sources of water pollutants. Some industrial plants dispose of toxic metals and organic compounds directly into streams and lakes. Many communities still discharge untreated or partly treated sewage wastes into surface waters. In urban and suburban areas, deicing salt and lawn conditioners (lime and fertilizers) enter and pollute streams and lakes, and also contaminate gr
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Global Patterns of Precipitation

Global precipitation patterns are largely determined by air masses and their movements, which in turn are produced by global air circulation patterns. Before taking a detailed look at global precipitation patterns, let’s look at Figure, which shows the general patterns expected for a hypothetical supercontinent that has most of the features of the Earth’s continents but is simplified. The map recognizes and defines five classes of annual precipitation: wet, humid, sub humid, semiarid, and arid. A schematic diagram of annual precipitation over an idealized continent and adjoining seas. Beginning with the equatorial zone, the figure shows a wet band stretching across the continent. This band is produced by convective precipitation over the equatorial lows near the intertropical convergence zone. Note that the wet band widens and is extended poleward into the tropical zone along the continent’s eastern coasts. This region is kept moist by the influence of the trade winds, which move warm,
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India

India is the world’s largest democracy. Despite some success in reducing the birth rate, its population will probably overtake China’s by 2030.
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Global Warming and Agriculture

At first, global warming will generally enhance crop production. But as temperature increases continue, agriculture will be negatively affected. Adaptation will mitigate some of the effects. For the remainder of the twenty-first century, and probably well beyond, our global climate will change. The Earth will become warmer, especially in mid- and high latitudes. Most areas will have more precipitation, although higher temperatures will often bring more summer drought stress. Extreme events—heavy rainfalls and high winds—will be more frequent.  How will global climate change impact agriculture? In general, higher temperatures will increase the productivity of most mid and high latitude crops by lengthening their growing season. But once temperatures get too high, the effects will be negative as heat stress reduces growth. Global warming is also expected to reduce minimum temperatures. This will be beneficial for many mid and highlatitude crops but detrimental to some tropical and equat
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Afghanistan

About 75% of this landlocked Asian country is inaccessible. The Islamist Taliban, ousted in 2001, continue to fight a guerrilla war against Afghan and NATO-led forces.
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Cloud Cover, Precipitation, and Global Warming

Low, thick clouds tend to cool the Earth, and high, thin clouds tend to warm it. On balance, clouds presently act to cool the Earth. Clouds are so common we don’t think much about them. But they can have a large impact on climate. How would global climate be influenced by an increase in clouds and precipitation? Global temperatures have been rising over the last 20 years. Satellite data show a rise in temperature of the global ocean surface of about 1°C over the past decade. Any rise in sea-surface temperature will increase the rate of evaporation, and an increase in evaporation will raise the average atmospheric content of water vapor. Water has several roles in global climate.  First, in its vapor state it is one of the greenhouse gases that absorb and emit longwave radiation, enhancing the warming effect of the atmosphere above the Earth’s surface. In fact, water is a more powerful greenhouse gas than CO2 . So we can predict that an increase in global water vapor in the atmosphere
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Japan

Japan is located off the east Asian coast and comprises four principal islands and over 3000 smaller ones. A powerful economy, it has an emperor as ceremonial head of state.
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